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"O ouro preto" 

In 2020, coal supplied about 1/4 of the world's primary energy and over 1/3 of its electricity.  Some iron, steel-making, and other industrial processes burn coal.  14 billion tons of CO2 were emitted by burning coal in 2020, which is 40% of the total fossil fuel emissions (and over 25% of total global GHG emissions).  In 2024, global coal production reached 9.24 billion tons (6.5 Mtoe) [VCAP, 2025].

Coal facts

• It is the largest source of energy-related CO2 emissions.

• It has been used for heating since the cave man.

• Depending on the type of coal, the carbon content is 25-97%.

• More than 90% of the U.S. coal is used for electricity.

• Worldwide, there are an estimated 892 billion tons of coal reserves.

Coal benefits

Although it is a major emitter of GHG (the highest among fossil fuels), coal has some benefits:

• Extensive & abundant deposits are present throughout all regions of the Earth.

• Vs. charcoal, mineral coal is more energy-efficient due to its higher heat output.

• Very significant energy production per unit of weight.

Coal types

Coal is classified into four main types: anthracite (highest ranked, hardest coal, highest heating value, low sulfur, mostly used for chemical & metallurgical purposes, 86%–97% carbon content), bituminous (soft coal, most popular, 45%–86%), sub-bituminous (brown coal, 35%–45%), and lignite (lower ranked, 25%–35%). 

The ranking depends on the types and amounts of carbon the coal contains and on the amount of heat energy the coal can produce.  The rank of a coal deposit is determined by the amount of pressure & heat that acted on the plants over time [EIA, 2023].  Figure 1 shows the main types of coal.

Coal producers, consumers & reserves

In 2022, the world’s coal output expanded by 8.2% as coal prices remained at a high level, caused by supply disruptions from the Russo-Ukraine conflict.  China remained the world’s largest coal and lignite producer in 2022, accounting more than half of supply (51% in 2022) and its share is growing (+4% since 2019), followed by India (11%), and Indonesia (8%) [ED, 2023].  In 2022, global consumption of coal surpassed 8 billion tons in a single year for the first time, with China and India being the two biggest consumers in absolute terms [VC, 2023].  Figure 2 presents the main coal-producing countries worldwide (2024F), led by China, India, and Indonesia, whereas Figure 3 shows the nations's reliance on coal in 2022.

Proven coal reserves are geographically concentrated and estimated as follows [VCAP, 2025]:

1.  U.S.: 248,941 Mt (million tons) (23%) - North America

2.  Russia 162,166 Mt (15%) - Europe

3.  Australia 150,227 Mt (14%) - Oceania

4.  China 143,197 Mt (13%) - Asia

5.  India 111,052 Mt (10%) - Asia

6.  Germany 35,900 Mt (3%) - Europe

7.  Indonesia 34,869 Mt (3%) - Asia

8.  Ukraine 34,375 Mt (3%) - Europe

9.  Poland 28,395 Mt (2%) - Europe

10.  Kazakhstan Mt (2%) - Asia

11.  Turkey 11,525 Mt (1%) - Europe

The turning point

According to new projections from the IEA World Energy Outlook (WEO), the age of relentless fossil fuels growth is set to come to an end this decade.  The report shows that demand for each of the three fossil fuels (coal, oil & NG) is set to hit a peak in the coming years.  This is the first time that a peak in demand is visible for each fuel this decade [FT, 2023].